Participial Adjectives
Adjektiva yang berakhiran –ing dan –ed disebut dengan istilah participial adjectives, karena mempunyai kesamaan akhiran dengan verb participles.-ed: computerized, determined, excited, shocked, misunderstood, renowned, self-centred, talented, unknown, attracted, bored, etc.
-ing: annoying, averaging, exasperating, frightening, gratifying, misleading, relaxing, thrilling, time-consuming, surprising, worrying, etc.
Beberapa bentuk –ed pada contoh diatas seperti misunderstood dan unknown tidak berakhiran –ed sama sekali, karena ia memiliki bentuknya sendiri (irregular).
Seperti halnya adjektiva, participial adjectives dapat diberi awalan very, extremely, atau less (very determined, extremely self-centred, less frightening, etc). Juga dapat ditambahkan awalan more dan most untuk menyatakan perbandingan (annoying, more annoying, most annoying). Dan sebagian besar participial adjectives dapat berlaku sebagai attributive maupun predicative.
Attributive:
- That’s an irritating noise.
- This is an exciting film.
- He’s a talented musician.
Predicative:
- That noise is irritating.
- This film is exciting.
- That musician is talented.
Banyak participial adjectives yang tidak terkait verba dibentuk bersama dengan nomina dan participle, misalnya: alcohol-based chemicals, energy-saving devices, fact-finding mission, etc. Bentuk ini juga dapat berlaku sebagai predicative (the chemicals are alcohol-based, the devices are energy-saving, etc).
Pada saat participial adjectives berlaku sebagai predicative, kadang-kadang kita mengalami sedikit kesulitan membedakan apakah itu adjektiva atau verba.
Perhatikan contoh berikut ini:
[1] The noise is annoying.
[2] The noise is annoying the neighbours.
Dalam kalimat [1] kita dapat menambahkan, misalnya kata very pada annoying.
[1a] The noise is (very) annoying.
Tetapi kita tidak dapat melakukan hal yang sama pada kalimat [2].
[2a] The noise is (very) annoying the neighbours.
Pada contoh [1a] menunjukkan bahwa annoying adalah adjektiva. Sedangkan pada contoh [2] annoying sebagai verba tidak dapat ditambahkan kata very didepannya, seperti pada contoh [2a]. Ini ditunjukkan dengan adanya the neighbours (direct object) setelah annoying. Perhatikan juga bahwa kalimat [2] dapat diubah menjadi bentuk passive: The neighbours were annoyed by the noise. Dalam kalimat tersebut [2], annoying adalah main verb, yang sebelumnya didahului oleh kata kerja bantu is. Tetapi, dalam kalimat [1] yang berlaku sebagai main verb adalah is.
Noun Phrases
Noun
phrases normally consist of a head noun, which is optionally modified
("premodified" if the modifier appears before the noun;
"postmodified" if the modifier follows the noun). Possible modifiers
include:- determiners: articles (the, a), demonstratives (this, that), numerals (two, five, etc.), possessives (my, their, etc.), and quantifiers (some, many, etc.). In English, determiners are usually placed before the noun;
- adjectives (the red ball); or
- complements, in the form of a prepositional phrase (such as: the student of physics), or a That-clause (the claim that the earth is round);
- modifiers; pre-modifiers if before the noun and usually either as nouns (the university student) or adjectives (the beautiful lady), or post-modifiers if after the noun. A postmodifier may be either a prepositional phrase (the man with long hair) or a relative clause (the house where I live). The difference between modifiers and complements is that complements complete the meaning of the noun; complements are necessary, whereas modifiers are optional because they add information about the noun.
The head of a noun phrase can be implied, as in "The Bold and the Beautiful" or Robin Hood's "rob from the rich and give to the poor"; an implied noun phrase is most commonly used as a generic plural referring to human beings. Another example of noun phrase with implied head is I choose the cheaper of the two.
That noun phrases can be headed by elements other than nouns—for instance, pronouns (They came) or determiners (I'll take these)—has given rise to the postulation of a determiner phrase instead of a noun phrase. The English language is stricter than some other languages with regard to possible noun phrase heads. German, for instance, allows adjectives as heads of noun phrases,as in Gib mir die Alten for Give me the olds (i.e. old ones).The Scandinavian languages can do the same, as in Swedish: Ge mig de gamla for Give me the old (ones).
In addition to pronouns and demonstratives, numerals and adjectives may function as the head of the noun phrase, and take modifiers as a noun would. For example, The Secret Seven, something wild, the first few, we three, all this, only you, just mine.
Conjunctions
Some words are
satisfied spending an evening at home, alone, eating ice-cream right out of the
box, watching Seinfeld re-runs on TV, or reading a good book. Others
aren't happy unless they're out on the town, mixing it up with other words;
they're joiners and they just can't help themselves. A conjunction is
a joiner, a word that connects (conjoins) parts of a sentence.
The simple,
little conjunctions are called coordinating conjunctions (you can click
on the words to see specific descriptions of each one):
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Coordinating Conjunctions
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(It may help you
remember these conjunctions by recalling that they all have fewer than four
letters. Also, remember the acronym FANBOYS: For-And-Nor-But-Or-Yet-So.
Be careful of the words then and now; neither is a coordinating
conjunction, so what we say about coordinating conjunctions' roles in a
sentence and punctuation does not apply to those two words.)
When a
coordinating conjunction connects two independent clauses, it is often (but not always) accompanied by
a comma:
- Ulysses wants to play for UConn, but he has had trouble meeting the academic requirements.
When the two
independent clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction are nicely balanced
or brief, many writers will omit the comma:
- Ulysses has a great jump shot but he isn't quick on his feet.
The comma is
always correct when used to separate two independent clauses connected by a coordinating
conjunction. See Punctuation Between Two Independent
Clauses for further
help.
A comma is also
correct when and is used to attach the last item of a serial list,
although many writers (especially in newspapers) will omit that final comma:
- Ulysses spent his summer studying basic math, writing, and reading comprehension.
When a
coordinating conjunction is used to connect all the elements in a series, a
comma is not used:
- Presbyterians and Methodists and Baptists are the prevalent Protestant congregations in Oklahoma.
A comma is also
used with but when expressing a contrast:
- This is a useful rule, but difficult to remember.
In most of their
other roles as joiners (other than joining independent clauses, that is),
coordinating conjunctions can join two sentence elements without the help of a
comma.
- Hemingway and Fitzgerald are among the American expatriates of the between-the-wars era.
- Hemingway was renowned for his clear style and his insights into American notions of male identity.
- It is hard to say whether Hemingway or Fitzgerald is the more interesting cultural icon of his day.
- Although Hemingway is sometimes disparaged for his unpleasant portrayal of women and for his glorification of machismo, we nonetheless find some sympathetic, even heroic, female figures in his novels and short stories.
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A frequently
asked question about conjunctions is whether and or but can be
used at the beginning of a sentence. This is what R.W. Burchfield has to say
about this use of and:
There is a persistent belief that it is
improper to begin a sentence with And, but this prohibition has been
cheerfully ignored by standard authors from Anglo-Saxon times onwards. An
initial And is a useful aid to writers as the narrative continues.
The same is
true with the conjunction but. A sentence beginning with and or
but will tend to draw attention to itself and its transitional
function. Writers should examine such sentences with two questions in mind:
(1) would the sentence and paragraph function just as well without the
initial conjunction? (2) should the sentence in question be connected to the
previous sentence? If the initial conjunction still seems appropriate, use
it.
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Among the
coordinating conjunctions, the most common, of course, are and, but,
and or. It might be helpful to explore the uses of these three little
words. The examples below by no means exhaust the possible meanings of these
conjunctions.
- To suggest that one idea is chronologically sequential to another: "Tashonda sent in her applications and waited by the phone for a response."
- To suggest that one idea is the result of another: "Willie heard the weather report and promptly boarded up his house."
- To suggest that one idea is in contrast to another (frequently replaced by but in this usage): "Juanita is brilliant and Shalimar has a pleasant personality.
- To suggest an element of surprise (sometimes replaced by yet in this usage): "Hartford is a rich city and suffers from many symptoms of urban blight."
- To suggest that one clause is dependent upon another, conditionally (usually the first clause is an imperative): "Use your credit cards frequently and you'll soon find yourself deep in debt."
- To suggest a kind of "comment" on the first clause: "Charlie became addicted to gambling — and that surprised no one who knew him."
- To suggest a contrast that is unexpected in light of the first clause: "Joey lost a fortune in the stock market, but he still seems able to live quite comfortably."
- To suggest in an affirmative sense what the first part of the sentence implied in a negative way (sometimes replaced by on the contrary): "The club never invested foolishly, but used the services of a sage investment counselor."
- To connect two ideas with the meaning of "with the exception of" (and then the second word takes over as subject): "Everybody but Goldenbreath is trying out for the team."
- To suggest that only one possibility can be realized, excluding one or the other: "You can study hard for this exam or you can fail."
- To suggest the inclusive combination of alternatives: "We can broil chicken on the grill tonight, or we can just eat leftovers.
- To suggest a refinement of the first clause: "Smith College is the premier all-women's college in the country, or so it seems to most Smith College alumnae."
- To suggest a restatement or "correction" of the first part of the sentence: "There are no rattlesnakes in this canyon, or so our guide tells us."
- To suggest a negative condition: "The New Hampshire state motto is the rather grim "Live free or die."
- To suggest a negative alternative without the use of an imperative (see use of and above): "They must approve his political style or they wouldn't keep electing him mayor."
Authority used
for this section on the uses of and, but, and or: A University
Grammar of English by Randolph Quirk and Sidney Greenbaum. Longman Group:
Essex, England. 1993. Used with permission. Examples our own.
The conjunction NOR is not extinct, but it is not used
nearly as often as the other conjunctions, so it might feel a bit odd when nor
does come up in conversation or writing. Its most common use is as the little
brother in the correlative pair, neither-nor (see below):
- He is neither sane nor brilliant.
- That is neither what I said nor what I meant.
>It can be
used with other negative expressions:
- That is not what I meant to say, nor should you interpret my statement as an admission of guilt.
It is possible to
use nor without a preceding negative element, but it is unusual and, to
an extent, rather stuffy:
- George's handshake is as good as any written contract, nor has he ever proven untrustworthy.
The word YET functions sometimes as an adverb and
has several meanings: in addition ("yet another cause of trouble" or
"a simple yet noble woman"), even ("yet more expensive"),
still ("he is yet a novice"), eventually ("they may yet
win"), and so soon as now ("he's not here yet"). It also
functions as a coordinating conjunction meaning something like
"nevertheless" or "but." The word yet seems to carry
an element of distinctiveness that but can seldom register.
- John plays basketball well, yet his favorite sport is badminton.
- The visitors complained loudly about the heat, yet they continued to play golf every day.
In sentences such
as the second one, above, the pronoun subject of the second clause
("they," in this case) is often left out. When that happens, the
comma preceding the conjunction might also disappear: "The visitors
complained loudly yet continued to play golf every day."
Yet is sometimes combined with other
conjunctions, but or and. It would not be unusual to see and
yet in sentences like the ones above. This usage is acceptable.
The word FOR is most often used as a preposition,
of course, but it does serve, on rare occasions, as a coordinating conjunction.
Some people regard the conjunction for as rather highfalutin and
literary, and it does tend to add a bit of weightiness to the text. Beginning a
sentence with the conjunction "for" is probably not a good idea,
except when you're singing "For he's a jolly good fellow. "For"
has serious sequential implications and in its use the order of thoughts is
more important than it is, say, with because or since. Its
function is to introduce the reason for the preceding clause:
- John thought he had a good chance to get the job, for his father was on the company's board of trustees.
- Most of the visitors were happy just sitting around in the shade, for it had been a long, dusty journey on the train.
Be careful of the
conjunction SO. Sometimes it
can connect two independent clauses along with a comma, but sometimes it can't.
For instance, in this sentence,
- Soto is not the only Olympic athlete in his family, so are his brother, sister, and his Uncle Chet.
where the word so
means "as well" or "in addition," most careful writers
would use a semicolon between the two independent clauses. In the following
sentence, where so is acting like a minor-league "therefore,"
the conjunction and the comma are adequate to the task:
- Soto has always been nervous in large gatherings, so it is no surprise that he avoids crowds of his adoring fans.
Sometimes, at the
beginning of a sentence, so will act as a kind of summing up device or
transition, and when it does, it is often set off from the rest of the sentence
with a comma:
- So, the sheriff peremptorily removed the child from the custody of his parents.
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In some parts of the United States,
we are told, then and than not only look alike, they sound
alike. Like a teacher with twins in her classroom, you need to be able to
distinguish between these two words; otherwise, they'll become mischievous.
They are often used and they should be used for the right purposes.
Than is used to make comparisons. In the sentence "Piggy would rather be rescued then stay on the island," we have employed the wrong word because a comparison is being made between Piggy's two choices; we need than instead. In the sentence, "Other than Pincher Martin, Golding did not write another popular novel," the adverbial construction "other than" helps us make an implied comparison; this usage is perfectly acceptable in the United States but careful writers in the UK try to avoid it (Burchfield).
Generally, the
only question about than arises when we have to decide whether the
word is being used as a conjunction or as a preposition. If it's a
preposition (and Merriam-Webster's dictionary provides for this usage), then
the word that follows it should be in the object form.
Most careful
writers, however, will insist that than be used as a conjunction; it's
as if part of the clause introduced by than has been left out:
In formal,
academic text, you should probably use than as a conjunction and
follow it with the subject form of a pronoun (where a pronoun is
appropriate).
Then is a conjunction, but it is not one of the
little conjunctions listed at the top of this page. We can use the FANBOYS conjunctions to connect two independent
clauses; usually, they will be accompanied (preceded) by a comma. Too many
students think that then works the same way: "Caesar invaded
Gaul, then he turned his attention to England." You can tell the
difference between then and a coordinating conjunction by trying to
move the word around in the sentence. We can write "he then turned his
attention to England"; "he turned his attention, then, to
England"; he turned his attention to England then." The word can
move around within the clause. Try that with a conjunction, and you will
quickly see that the conjunction cannot move around. "Caesar invaded
Gaul, and then he turned his attention to England." The word and
is stuck exactly there and cannot move like then, which is more like
an adverbial conjunction (or conjunctive adverb — see below) than a
coordinating conjunction. Our original sentence in this paragraph —
"Caesar invaded Gaul, then he turned his attention to England" — is
a comma splice, a faulty sentence construction in which a
comma tries to hold together two independent clauses all by itself: the comma
needs a coordinating conjunction to help out, and the word then simply
doesn't work that way.
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A Subordinating
Conjunction (sometimes called a dependent word or subordinator) comes at
the beginning of a Subordinate (or Dependent) Clause and establishes the relationship between the
dependent clause and the rest of the sentence. It also turns the clause into
something that depends on the rest of the sentence for its meaning.
- He took to the stage as though he had been preparing for this moment all his life.
- Because he loved acting, he refused to give up his dream of being in the movies.
- Unless we act now, all is lost.
Notice that some
of the subordinating conjunctions in the table below — after, before, since —
are also prepositions, but as subordinators they are being used to introduce a
clause and to subordinate the following clause to the independent element in
the sentence.
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Common Subordinating Conjunctions
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after
although as as if as long as as though because before even if even though |
if
if only in order that now that once rather than since so that than that |
though
till unless until when whenever where whereas wherever while |
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Strictly
speaking, the word like is a preposition, not a conjunction. It can,
therefore, be used to introduce a prepositional phrase ("My brother is
tall like my father"), but it should not be used to introduce a
clause ("My brother can't play the piano
In formal,
academic text, it's a good idea to reserve the use of like for
situations in which similarities are being pointed out:
However, when
you are listing things that have similarities, such as is probably
more suitable:
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The word that
is used as a conjunction to connect a subordinate clause to a preceding verb.
In this construction that is sometimes called the "expletive that."
Indeed, the word is often omitted to good effect, but the very fact of easy
omission causes some editors to take out the red pen and strike out the
conjunction that wherever it appears. In the following sentences, we
can happily omit the that (or keep it, depending on how the sentence
sounds to us):
Sometimes omitting
the that creates a break in the flow of a sentence, a break that can
be adequately bridged with the use of a comma:
As a general
rule, if the sentence feels just as good without the that, if no
ambiguity results from its omission, if the sentence is more efficient or
elegant without it, then we can safely omit the that. Theodore
Bernstein lists three conditions in which we should maintain the
conjunction that:
Authority
for this section: Dos, Don'ts & Maybes of English Usage by
Theodore Bernstein. Gramercy Books: New York. 1999. p. 217. Examples our own.
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Somehow, the
notion that one should not begin a sentence with the subordinating
conjunction because retains a mysterious grip on people's sense of
writing proprieties. This might come about because a sentence that begins
with because could well end up a fragment if one is not careful to
follow up the "because clause" with an independent clause.
When the
"because clause" is properly subordinated to another idea
(regardless of the position of the clause in the sentence), there is
absolutely nothing wrong with it:
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Some conjunctions
combine with other words to form what are called correlative conjunctions.
They always travel in pairs, joining various sentence elements that should be
treated as grammatically equal.
- She led the team not only in statistics but also by virtue of her enthusiasm.
- Polonius said, "Neither a borrower nor a lender be."
- Whether you win this race or lose it doesn't matter as long as you do your best.
Correlative
conjunctions sometimes create problems in parallel form. Click HERE for help with those problems. Here is a brief
list of common correlative conjunctions.
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both
. . . and
not only . . . but also not . . . but either . . . or |
neither
. . . nor
whether . . . or as . . . as |
Conjunctive Adverbs
The conjunctive
adverbs such as however, moreover, nevertheless, consequently, as a
result are used to create complex relationships between ideas. Refer to the
section on Coherence: Transitions Between
Ideas for an extensive
list of conjunctive adverbs categorized according to their various uses and for
some advice on their application within sentences (including
punctuation issues).
Active and Passive Voice
Kalimat
aktif (active voice) adalah kalimat dimana subject-nya melakukan pekerjaan,
sebaliknya, kalimat pasif (passive voice) adalah kalimat dimana subject-nya
dikenai pekerjaan oleh object kalimat. Active voice lebih sering digunakan
dalam kehidupan sehari-hari dibandingkan dengan passive voice. Namun demikian,
sering kita temukan passive voice di surat-surat kabar, artikel-artikel di
majalah-majalah dan tulisan-tulisan ilmiah. Passive voice digunakan karena
object dari active voice merupakan informasi yang lebih penting dibandingkan
dengan subject-nya.
Contoh
:
- Active : We fertilize the soil every 6 months
- Passive: The soil is fertilized by us every 6 months
Dari
contoh ini dapat kita lihat bahwa:
- Object dari active voice (the soil) menjadi subject dari passive voice
- Subject dari active voice (we) menjadi object dari passive voice. Perhatikan pula bahwa terjadi perubahan dari subject pronoun ‘we’ menjadi object pronoun ‘us’.
- Verb1 (fertilize) pada active voice menjadi verb3 (fertilized) pada passive voice.
- Ditambahkannya be ‘is’ di depan verb3. Be yang digunakan adalah tergantung pada subject passive voice dan tenses yang digunakan. (Perhatikan pola-pola passive voice di bawah).
- Ditambahkannya kata ‘by’ di belakang verb3. Namun, jika object dari passive voice dianggap tidak penting atau tidak diketahui, maka object biasanya tidak dikemukakan dan begitu pula kata ‘by’.
- Khusus untuk kalimat-kalimat progressive (present, past, past perfect, future, past future, dan past future perfect continuous, perlu menambahkan ‘being’ di depan verb3). Kalau tidak ditambahkan “being”, tensisnya akan berubah, bukan progressive/continuous lagi. Perhatikan contoh-contoh pada poin h – o di bawah.
Berdasarkan
keenam poin di atas maka passive voice mengikuti pola sebagai berikut:
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Subject
+ be + Verb3 + by + Object
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Pola active dan passive voice pada tiap tensis
a.
Jika active voice dalam simple
present tense, maka ‘be’ passive voice-nya adalah is, am atau
are.
Contoh:
- Active : He meets them everyday.
- Passive : They are met by him everyday.
- Active : She waters this plant every two days.
- Passive : This plant is watered by her every two days.
b.
Jika active voice dalam simple past
tense, maka ‘be’ passive voice-nya adalah was atau were
Contoh:
- Active : He met them yesterday
- Passive : They were met by him yesterday
- Active : She watered this plant this morning
- Passive : This plant was watered by her this morning
c.
Jika active voice dalam present
perfect tense, maka ‘be’ passive voice-nya adalah been yang
diletakkan setelah auxiliary has atau have, sehingga menjadi ‘has
been’ atau ‘have been’
Contoh:
- Active : He has met them
- Passive : They have been met by him
- Active : She has watered this plant for 5 minutes.
- Passive : This plant has been watered by her for 5 minutes.
d.
Jika active voice dalam past perfect
tense, maka ‘be’ passive voice-nya adalah been yang diletakkan
setelah auxiliary had, sehingga menjadi had been
Contoh:
- Active : He had met them before I came.
- Passive : They had been met by him before I came.
- Active : She had watered this plant for 5 minutes when I got here
- Passive : This plant had been watered by her for 5 minutes when I got here
e.
Jika active voice dalam simple
future tense, maka ‘be’ passive voice-nya adalah be
Contoh:
- Active : He will meet them tomorrow.
- Passive : They will be met by him tomorrow.
- Active : She will water this plant this afternoon.
- Passive : This plant will be watered by her this afternoon.
- Active : The farmers are going to harvest the crops next week
- Passive : The crops are going to be harvested by the farmers next week.
f.
Jika active voice dalam future
perfect tense, maka ‘be’ passive voice-nya adalah been yang
diletakkan setelah auxiliary will have, sehingga menjadi ‘will have
been’
Contoh:
- Active : He will have met them before I get there tomorrow.
- Passive : They will have been met by him before I get there tomorrow.
- Active : She will have watered this plant before I get here this afternoon.
- Passive : This plant will have been watered by her before I get here this afternoon.
g.
Jika active voice dalam past future
perfect tense, maka ‘be’ passive voice-nya adalah been yang
diletakkan setelah auxiliary would have, sehingga menjadi ‘would have
been’.
Contoh:
- Active : He would have met them.
- Passive : They would have been met by him.
- Active : She would have watered this plant.
- Passive : This plant would have been watered by her.
h.
Jika active voice dalam present
continuous tense, maka ‘be’ passive voice-nya adalah (is, am atau
are) + being.
Contoh:
- Active : He is meeting them now.
- Passive : They are being met by him now.
- Active : She is watering this plant now.
- Passive : This plant is being watered by her now.
i.
Jika active voice dalam past
continuous tense, maka ‘be’ passive voice-nya adalah (was atau
were) + being.
Contoh:
- Active : He was meeting them.
- Passive : They were being met by him.
- Active : She was watering this plant.
- Passive : This plant was being watered by her.
j.
Jika active voice dalam perfect
continuous tense, maka ‘be’ passive voice-nya adalah (has/have) been +
being.
Contoh:
- Active : He has been meeting them.
- Passive : They have been being met by him.
- Active : She has been watering this plant.
- Passive : This plant has been being watered by her.
k.
Jika active voice dalam past
perfect continuous tense, maka ‘be’ passive voice-nya adalah had been +
being.
Contoh:
- Active : He had been meeting them.
- Passive : They had been being met by him.
- Active : She had been watering this plant.
- Passive : This plant had been being watered by her.
l.
Jika active voice dalam future
continuous tense, maka ‘be’ passive voice-nya adalah will be + being.
Contoh:
- Active : He will be meeting them.
- Passive : They will be being met by him.
- Active : She will be watering this plant.
- Passive : This plant will be being watered by her.
m.
Jika active voice dalam past future
continuous tense, maka ‘be’ passive voice-nya adalah would be + being.
Contoh:
- Active : He would be meeting them.
- Passive : They would be being met by him.
- Active : She would be watering this plant.
- Passive : This plant would be being watered by her.
n.
Jika active voice dalam future
perfect continuous tense, maka ‘be’ passive voice-nya adalah will have
been + being.
Contoh:
- Active : He will have been meeting them.
- Passive : They will have been being met by him.
- Active : She will have been watering this plant.
- Passive : This plant will have been being watered by her.
o.
Jika active voice dalam past future
perfect continuous tense, maka ‘be’ passive voice-nya adalah would have
been + being.
Contoh:
- Active : He would be meeting them.
- Passive : They would be being met by him.
- Active : She would be watering this plant.
- Passive : This plant would be being watered by her.
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